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I attended the 14th annual Orientale Lumen conference, held at the John Paul II cultural center in Washington, D.C. This was my third year attending, and it was quite enjoyable and informative this year. I am a very enthusiastic supporter of these conferences, as I believe that they foster, on a grass-roots level, the effort to have the Church breathe with both lungs, East and West. The path to unity is two-fold: official dialogue at the highest levels of the Church, and growing appreciation and acceptance of each other’s traditions in the pews. The OL conference works to make the second of these two objectives happen.

The theme of this year’s conference was “the councils of the church” and each of the speakers reflected on the work of the councils in the life of the Church from different perspectives.

The first plenary speaker was Donald Wuerl, archbishop of Washington, D.C. He began by commenting on Christ’s question to the apostles, “Who do you say that I am?” and then noted that the first four ecumenical councils (Nicea, Constantinople, Ephesus, and Chalcedon) were the Church’s dogmatic answer to that question. One of the key events in Church history, according to Archbishop Wuerl, was Nicea’s decision that truths about Jesus could be expressed in non-biblical language. Today, we take this for granted, but this was a momentous decision at the time.

The next plenary speaker was Metropolitan Jonah of the Orthodox Church in America. I heard His Beatitude at last year’s OL conference, and he is my favorite hierarch today. As someone said to me, he is “charming and disarming.” His talk was a paper on the relationship between conciliarity and hierarchy in the Church. While his talk was interesting, the Metropolitan really shines during question and answer. He never avoids a question and can be quite blunt in his answers. In all his answers, one thing comes out: he is devoted to following Jesus Christ and making him the focus of all his activities. He returns to this focus on Christ constantly no matter the topic, and I found it quite refreshing.

On Wednesday morning, Fr. Robert Taft, S.J. gave the third plenary talk. His presentation was a paper on the development of the Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom and how the councils affected that development. Those who are familiar with Fr. Taft know that he is not shy about giving his opinions and he didn’t disappoint in this regard at the conference. He was actively engaged in all the panels and shared many useful bits of information on a wide variety of topics.  Fr. Taft has done a tremendous amount of good in the Church in regards to East-West relations, and we should all be thankful for his work over the years.

The Wednesday afternoon plenary was my favorite. Given by Fr. Peter Galadza, it had the provocative title “How Many Ecumenical Councils? A Test Case for Eastern Catholic Theology.” In his talk, Fr. Galadza contended at the “ecumenical” councils after Nicea II (the 7th ecumenical council) should be considered “general” councils of the West and therefore not on the same level as the first seven councils. This might sound crazy, maybe even heretical, to the ears of many Roman Catholics, but for those who know the history of the councils, he is not as far out on a limb as may initially appear. In fact, the council of Constance in the 15th century (considered ecumenical by Roman Catholics) distinguished between the first eight councils, which they called “ecumenical,” and the next six councils, which they called “general.” Fr. Galadza gave a very balanced presentation, noting reasons why councils such as Lateran I-IV or Constance should not be ecumenical but stressing that they are still authoritative and useful in many respects.

The fifth plenary talk was a bit different, as it was given by a layman, Orthodox iconographer Elias Damianakis. I liked the change, as it gave a different perspective to the issue of the councils. Damianakis concentrated his remarks on how the councils have personally affected him in his faith life, as well as focusing on some lesser-known individuals associated with the councils.

The speaker for the final plenary could not make it, so instead a video from the OL conference held at Seton Hall a few weeks ago was shown. Fr. John Behr, a priest of the Orthodox Church in America, gave a great talk about the differences between “universal ecclesiology” and “eucharistic ecclesiology,” and how the two can be reconciled. While I disagree with some of his conclusions, I thought Fr. Behr was incredibly insightful in his analysis. I only wish he were there to take questions. Fr. Behr also noted the fact that the Pope was absent at all the universally-recognized ecumenical councils. While this may have started as a historical accident, Fr. Behr thinks it might have more meaning than that. By not attending, the Pope remained “above the fray” and was therefore able to remain a court of appeal, even to a council. Fr. Behr then gave a great quote: “Perhaps we Orthodox have not called an ecumenical council in over 1200 years not because we don’t have an emperor to call it, but because we don’t have a pope who won’t be there.”

All in all, the talks were all fascinating and informative. But the OL conference is not just about the talks, it also consists of liturgical services and fellowship. And on this count, this year’s conference was exceptional as usual. The liturgical services (Matins, Vespers and an Akathist) were beautiful and prayerful, and the opportunity to talk with other participants and speakers is always a highlight of the conference. I was actually one of the few Roman Catholics there, so it was great to speak to many Eastern Catholics and Orthodox about their perspectives on East-West relations. I especially enjoyed an afternoon discussion with Elias Damianakis over a range of topics.

Next year’s conference is the 15th annual, and director Jack Figel has big plans for it. Metropolitan Kallistos Ware already has committed to it, and Jack is working to get some (very) big other figures in East-West relations to come as well. Make an effort to attend next year!

“The house that Jack built…” was how His Grace, Bishop John Michael Botean described the Orientale Lumen movement at our recent OL Euro –East III opening session. In the presence of His All Holiness, Patriarch Bartholomew of Constantinople, Bishop John Michael highlighted the great achievement of Reader Jack Figel whose patience, persistence and vision made OL Euro-East a reality.

I call Orientale Lumen a “movement” because the gathering of friends and colleagues that has resulted from the yearly American conferences and the periodic European conferences has grown into something more than just a series of scholarly discussions. We have forged friendships and working relationships across Church lines that often seem higher and more impenetrable than the mighty Theodosian walls that still surround the ancient city of Constantinople/Istanbul.

For the first time, I eagerly touched the Royal Doors in Hagia Sophia and stood in the center of her magnificence agape with wonder and awe. I was equally as awe-struck, however, as a Greek Catholic presbyter, by kissing the hand of the Greek Orthodox Patriarch and by sitting in a place of honor in a Greek Orthodox monastery on the island of Patmos.

The OL conference in Istanbul had a familiar format to the ones I had attended in Washington, D.C. and San Diego, except that we had most evenings free. This was a welcome respite since we did not stay at the conference site, but travelled to special events along with the usual talks and panel discussions.

Monday evening, we listened to the wise words of His All Holiness Patriarch Bartholomew and Bishop John Michael, our moderator. We had the chance to renew old acquaintances at the customary social hour that followed.
Tuesday morning, we packed up early and got on a boat to go to the Island where Halki Seminary sits empty, closed down by the secular Turkish government. Halki is a beautiful complex, pristinely maintained in the hope that it will one day again receive Orthodox seminarians. We had two erudite talks there, one from Metropolitan Kallistos on the Council of Florence and one on Canon Law by Archbishop Cyril, the new Secretary (second in command) at the Oriental Congregation in Rome. Considering the steep incline of the hills on the island, we were all grateful for the horse drawn carriages that took us to and from the seminary.

Wednesday we listened to Archimandrite Robert Taft give an excellent talk about the Liturgy and Church Councils. We then had the privilege of joining the Ecumenical Patriarch during a pastoral visit to one of his parishes in Istanbul. Since, by law, we cannot dress as clergy in Istanbul, most of us carried our exo-rason and skufos with us and put them on within the confines of the church or monastery we visited. I regretted that choice in that beautiful but steamy parish Church that morning. I will never again complain about the heat in San Bernardino, CA!

After the Liturgy, we again joined his All Holiness for one of the most beautiful events I will ever witness. At Baloukli monastery, the site of the shrine of the Theotokos-the Life Giving Spring, we prayed the memorial service with the Ecumenical Patriarch at the tomb of Patriarch Athenagoras. I do not know how many Ecumenical Patriarchs are entombed at this convent or how long this has been a custom, although it would not surprise me if this were a post-Ottoman tradition. At any rate, I was utterly without words, praying at the tomb of Patriarch Athenagoras, the Greek Orthodox patriarch who, at the beginning of Vatican II, told my Melkite Patriarch, Maximos IV that he represented the Orthodox Church at the Council. The seed that those visionaries planted more than 40 years ago is beginning to bear some fruit.

Although it would have been difficult to follow that experience with anything greater, we did thoroughly enjoy our last stop that day. We had a tour and Vespers at the Ecumenical Patriarchate. Praying in the Church of St. George with the relics of St. John Chrysostom and St. Gregory the Theologian was a fitting end to a day spent with the living Patriarch of Constantinople and the relics of his predecessors.

Although the “conference” ended on Thursday with erudite talks from Sister Vassa and Dr. Richard Schneider, the wonderful things that Jack planned for us continued through the weekend.

On Friday, we packed up and spent the day touring some of the most important Churches in Istanbul. I was really glad that I had visited Hagia Sophia earlier in the week so that I could benefit from the commentary of Dr. Schneider our itinerant tour guide for the day. I had gotten the initial “gaping” out of the way in my first visit! Battling a terrible cold, Dr. Schneider was a trooper that day, providing a unique perspective on the places we visited. Aside from the Great Church, we visited the Chora with its exquisite icons and Blachernae, where a palace once stood and where the Turks finally breached the walls on May 28, 1453. It was there that the Akathistos hymn was composed and first sung. We sang “Triumphant Leader…” in several languages while we visited there. Finally, we spent time at the Church of Sts. Sergios and Bacchos, now a functioning mosque. The dancing beauty of this structure sang to us of the ingenuity of Emperor Justinian and Empress Theodora.

After all that, it was to the airport and off to Izmir, the modern city where ancient Smyrna, of St. Polycarp fame, once stood. On Saturday, we had a wonderful time tromping around the ruins of Ephesus.  At the Church of St. John the Evangelist, we prayed before the Evangelist’s simple tomb and listened carefully to Archimandrite Robert Taft point out interesting Byzantine features in the church ruins. Many of us succumbed to the temptation of posing for pictures in the baptismal font!

The ruins of Ephesus were quite instructive. We walked inside the remains of the Cathedral Church where the third Ecumenical Council took place. I strained to hear the debates of the Fathers who had condemned Nestorius as a heretic. A few of us quietly sang the Troparion to St. Mark of Ephesus who had resisted the reunion of the Council of Florence.
Sunday morning, we were off to Patmos. Well, we almost were not off to Patmos since the hotel had to perform mandatory tests (once every 20 years) on both their electrical and water systems and thus had shut both of them off. Standing with a small battery powered candle in pitch darkness, we debated who was going to carry our bags down the 23 flights of stairs since the elevators were not working. Luckily, the hotel restored the power before anyone drew the short straw.

After a wonderful but long ferry ride to the Greek island of Patmos, we had a brief tour of the cave-shrine where St. John the Evangelist wrote the Apocalypse. Metropolitan Kallistos told stories and shared insights that made the visit memorable. Since the Metropolitan is an idiorrhythmic monk of the monastery there, we received the royal treatment when we went from the cave of St. John up to the main monastery. The monks received us with generous hospitality. We had a tour of the Catholicon, or main Church, and then of parts of the monastery culminating in a visit with the Abbot in his sitting room. We were all disappointed that our schedule did not permit a longer stay, but we had to make it back to Turkey to catch our flight back to Istanbul so that we could go home.

The next morning, I sat with my long-time friend, Father Maximos of Holy Resurrection Monastery, where I am an idiorrhythmic monk. We sat drinking tea with Hagia Sophia behind us and looking up at Hagia Eirene before us. As we sifted through pictures on our cameras, it was difficult to believe that all of the things I have written about happened in such a short time. After a while, Father Deacon Moses of Holy Resurrection and my parishioner, Lynn Cisneros, joined us after successfully plundering the Spice Bazaar. We all took a leisurely stroll down to the Hippodrome so that we could get some photos there as well. None of us were moving too quickly since we had all felt the weight of the important things we had witnessed in the preceding days and were tired from the exertion of the whole experience. It was good to have one more day to begin to put this extraordinary time into focus.

In all, I have noted a change in my own focus. I realize after spending so much time with the Greek Orthodox Patriarch that I do not even know the name of the Greek Orthodox priest at the parish less than a mile away from mine! The real power of the Orientale Lumen movement is that it brings people together as friends, as sisters and brothers in Christ. Petty name calling and jurisdictional posturing melt away in the warm embrace of two people who would never have met if it were not for the OL Conference or the OL movement or Jack Figel. I hope that we continue to move toward real union. I hope that our friendships and the pain of not being able to Break Bread together at the same Altar motivates us, goads us to seek true union and true healing of the Body of Christ.

-Father Justin
Pastor-St. Philip the Apostle Melkite Greek Catholic Mission, San Bernardino, CA
Novice Associate of Holy Resurrection Monastery

We recognize the presence of many eminent speakers, hierarchs and academics, including clergy, monastics, and laity - and we thank them in advance for their esteemed attendance and invaluable contribution. In this regard, we also express our appreciation to Mr. Jack Figel for organizing this third meeting of Orientale Lumen in Istanbul. As all of our forefathers of the Great Councils of the Church experienced, we too can repeat: “Behold, how good and pleasant it is for brothers and sisters to dwell together.” (Psalm 132:1)

We have followed the deliberations of your international land local gatherings since they began in Washington DC in 1997. From the outset, these conferences have expressed a special appreciation for the “Light of the East,” exploring the rich spiritual and theological heritage of the Orthodox Church in the spirit of the Apostolic Letter, Orientale Lumen, by His Holiness Pope John Paul II. This inheritance can also guide us in healing the wounds of our Christian divisions. For, over many years, such Conferences have provided a valuable opportunity for members of the Roman Catholic Church and Orthodox Church to meet together, pray together, and study together. It is to this healing of divisions and unity of mind that the Ecumenical Patriarchate has been dedicated through the centuries but most especially over the last century.

1. In many ways, this journey toward visible and sacramental unity namely, our dedicated and continual response to the Lord’s command that, as His disciples, we “may all be one” (John 17:21) is one of the most important elements of the Church’s conciliar nature. Thus, the Councils of our Church are precisely a commitment to Christian unity. They articulate the necessary critical steps for overcoming political and doctrinal division, or ecclesiastical and theological estrangement. They formulate fundamental guidelines for the definition of community boundaries and evasion of general pitfalls. The Councils are, first and foremost, gatherings of unity and assemblies of communion. They are, therefore, essentially liturgical occasions for leaders of the Church to “love one another so that with one mind [they] may confess Father, Son, and Holy Spirit,” as we chant each Sunday in the Divine Liturgy of our venerable predecessor on the Throne of Constantinople, St. John Chrysostom.

2. If conciliar gatherings are primarily assemblies of unity and communion, they are also gatherings of the Spirit or charismatic meetings. They are essentially Pentecostal events, where deliberation and discussion - indeed, even difference and divergence result in “avoiding all schisms”(I Corinthians 1:10) and resolve in “maintaining unity of the Spirit in the bond of peace.” (Ephesians 4:6) It is only when we are gathered together in Openness and fellowship, when we dialogue in love and truth, that we can be sure that the Paraclete is guiding our steps in the way of the Lord. It is only when we can sincerely and humbly surrender individual arrogance or institutional pride that we can be assured of discerning the way of the Spirit.

It is, as the early monastics of the Egyptian desert liked to say, only when we “give blood that we may receive the Spirit.” (Sayings of the Desert Fathers, Abba Longinus) It is when the Apostles of Christ gathered together to deliberate candidly on the common problems that they encountered as the early Christian community that they were able confidently to claim that the Holy Spirit was speaking to them, in them, and through them. In the inspired words of the Apostolic Council, but also the opening phrase of every Ecumenical Council through the ages: “It seemed good to the Holy Spirit and to us …” (Acts15.28)

3. Finally, if conciliar gatherings are liturgical and Pentecostal events, they are also timely gatherings and contemporary meetings, mandated by the historical circumstances and current conditions of the Church in a particular age and place. It is important to remember that councils or synods whether the Apostolic Synod in the early Church or the Great Councils through the centuries have always convened in response to specific needs and problems, as a result of distinct predicaments and challenges. In this regard, in October 2008, during the 5th Synaxis of the Heads of the Autocephalous Orthodox Churches throughout the world, we affirmed our obligation and commitment to advance the preparations for the Holy and Great Council of the Orthodox Church, already commenced through Pan-Orthodox Pre-Conciliar Consultations. Moreover, we emphasized the importance of activating the 1993 agreement of the Inter-Orthodox Consultation of the Holy and Great Council in order to resolve the pending matter of the Orthodox Diaspora. Consequently, at the initiative and invitation of the Mother Church of Constantinople, the Ecumenical Patriarchate, representatives of the local Orthodox Churches have unanimously attended - since the First Pan-Orthodox Conference held in 1961 in Rhodes - several meetings, most recently the 4th Pre-Conciliar Pan-Orthodox Conference held in 2009 in Chambesy. Thereafter, a number of Episcopal Assemblies have met throughout the Orthodox world in preparation for the Holy and Great Council, which we fervently pray will soon be convened for the glory of God and the edification of His people in order that we may speak “with one voice and one heart” to the contemporary world, which “always asks us to be accountable for the hope that is in us, with gentleness and reverence.” (I Peter 3:15)

With these modest observations about the conciliar nature of our Church - that is to say, the understanding of councils as gatherings of unity, as assemblies of the Spirit, and as crucial responses to contemporary demands we convey upon all of you our Patriarchal wishes and paternal prayers for a successful conference in this city, where so much of the conciliar activity of the Orthodox Church occurred over the span of a thousand years.”

May the God of hope fill you with all joy and peace in believing so that you may abound in hope by the power of the Holy Spirit.” (Romans 15:13)

SITE: Nicaea
YEAR: A.D. 787
POPE: Hadrian I, 772 - 795
EMPERORS: Constantine VI, 780 - 797 and Empress Irene (797 - 802)
ACTION: This council, called by Empress Irene (widow of Emperor Leo IV and regent for her son Constantine VI), with its doctrinal decree ratified by Pope Hadrian I, condemned ICONOCLASM. The Pope’s epistle here, just as with Pope St.Leo I at Chalcedon, set the tone of the council.
NOTE: Brewing beneath the surface at this time, however, was a rejection of papal authority. The Eastern Bishops, cut off from Rome and receptive to heresy under persecution, were held suspect by Rome.
NOTE: Iconoclasm had been fostered by Emperor Leo III (717 - 741), who was opposed by Popes Gregory II (715 - 731) and Gregory III (731 - 741) and by St. John Damascene (d.749), priest and Doctor of the Church, who published three discourses in defense of images.
HERESY: ICONOCLASM.

The Second Council of Nicaea was convoked by Emperor Constantine VI and his mother Irene, under Pope Adrian I, and was presided over by the legates of Pope Adrian; it regulated the veneration of holy images. Between 300 and 367 bishops assisted.

SITE: Constantinople
YEARS: A.D. 680 - 681
POPES: St. Agatho, 678 - 681, and St. Leo II, 682 - 683
EMPEROR: Constantine IV, 668 - 685
ACTION: Called by Emperor Constantine IV, and its calling authorized by Pope St. Agatho, this council condemned the heresy of the Monothelites (Mono-one thelema-will), which attributed only one will, to Christ (the divine), instead of two wills (divine and human), which two are in perfect accord within the one divine person, Jesus. Constantinople III also reconfirmed Chalcedon. Pope St. Leo II, 682 - 683, approved the decrees of Constantinople III, Pope St. Agatho having died (Jan. 10) before the council’s end.
NOTE: Pope St. Leo II also condemned Pope Honorius I (625 - 638) for negligence of duty in the face of heresy, in that he should have ascertained that Sergius was teaching not a mere harmony (oneness) of wills in Christ but literally one will in Christ, the divine will. Honorius had not spoken ex cathedra, so infallibility had not been involved.
HERESY/HERESIARCH: MONOTHELITISM originated by SERGIUS (patriarch of Constantinople, 610 A.D.).

The Third General Council of Constantinople, under Pope Agatho and the Emperor Constantine Pogonatus, was attended by the Patriarchs of Constantinople and of Antioch, 174 bishops, and the emperor. It put an end to Monothelitism by defining two wills in Christ, the Divine and the human, as two distinct principles of operation. It anathematized Sergius, Pyrrhus, Paul, Macarius, and all their followers.

SITE: Constantinople
YEAR: A.D. 553
POPE: Vigilius, 537 - 555
EMPEROR: Justinian I, 527 - 565
ACTION: Effectively called by Justinian I and eventually ratified by Pope Vigilius, Constantinople II condemned a collection of statements known as the “Three Chapters”: 1) the person and the writings of Theodore of Mopsuestia, Master of Nestorius, originator of that heresy; 2) the writings of Theodoret of Cyrrhus; 3) the writings of Ibas of Edessa. The last two friends of Nestorius had been restored to their sees by Chalcedon when they no longer opposed the teachings of St. Cyril of Alexandria (d. 444) and of Ephesus. Chalcedon was not discredited here (as the Monophysites had hoped) since it had been concerned with men. Constantinople II was concerned with their writings, although a hundred years after they had died.
NOTE: Two important local councils condemning heresies: Carthage (416) solemnly approved by Pope Innocent II, (401 - 417), and then in 418 by Pope Zosimus (417 - 418), condemned Pelagianism (Pelagius, a British Monk), which heresy denied original sin calling it only “bad example.” Orange (429) France, solemnly approved by Pope Boniface II (530 - 532), condemned Semi-Pelagianism (an over-reaction to St. Augustine on grace), which claimed man needed grace only after his first supernatural act. St. Augustine made it clear that God’s grace is first.
NOTE: Council referred much to St. Cyril, Bishop of Alexandria, Doctor of the Church (d. 444).
HERESIARCH: THEODORE OF MOPSUESTIA (”3 Chapters”).

The Second General Council of Constantinople, of 165 bishops under Pope Vigilius and Emperor Justinian I, condemned the errors of Origen and certain writings (The Three Chapters) of Theodoret, of Theodore, Bishop of Mopsuestia and of Ibas, Bishop of Edessa; it further confirmed the first four general councils, especially that of Chalcedon whose authority was contested by some heretics.

SITE: Chalcedon, (north of Constatinople)
YEAR: A.D. 451
POPE: St. Leo I, the Great, 440 - 461
EMPEROR: Marcian, 450 - 457
ACTION: Called by Emperor Marcian, spouse of the chaste and noble St. Pulcheria, and ratified by Pope St. Leo the Great, the council condemned the heresy of the Abbot Eutyches, MONOPHYSITISM, which claimed that there existed only “one nature” (the divine) in Christ from the Incarnation onward. Though the council had approved the assertion that Constantinople should be ranked first after Rome ecclesiastically, Pope St. Leo did not. The primacy of the See of Rome was due to it’s possession of the Chair of Peter, not to any political power. In his “Dogmatic Epistle,” read by his legates at the end of the second session of the council (Oct. 10, 451), Pope St. Leo I also declared invalid all that had been done at the “Robber Synod of Ephesus” (a false Ephesus II): ” ….we see no Council, but a den of thieves (Latrocinium).” In the greatest testimony of the Eastern Council to the primacy of the Pope, the bishops cried out: “Behold the faith of the fathers, the faith of the Apostles; thus through Leo has Peter spoken!” Eutyches was excommunicated.
NOTE: Pope St. Leo I, Doctor of the Church (d. 461), was called the “Soul” of Chalcedon.
HERESIARCH / HERETICS: EUTYCHES - MONOPHYSITES.

The Council of Chalcedon — 150 bishops under Pope Leo the Great and the Emperor Marcian — defined the two natures (Divine and human) in Christ against Eutyches, who was excommunicated.

SITE: Ephesus (S. of Smyrna in SW Asia Minor).
YEAR: A.D. 431
POPE: St. Celestine I, 423 - 432
EMPEROR: Theodosius II, 408 - 450
ACTION: Called by the Eastern Emperor, Theodosius II, influenced by his pious sister, St. Pulcheria (Emperor in the West was Valentinian III, 425 - 455), and ratified by Pope Celestine I, this council condemned the heresy of Nestorius by clearly defining the Divine maternity of the Blessed Virgin Mary. There are two natures in Christ (Divine and Human), but only one Person (Divine). Mary is the Mother of this one Divine Person, the eternal Second Person of the Blessed Trinity. Nestorius was deposed as bishop of Constantinople. This council also briefly affirmed the condemnation of the Pelagians (see local Council of Carthage, A.D. 416).
NOTE: St. Cyril of Alexandria, Doctor of the Church (d.444), was the bishop presiding.
HERESIARCH: NESTORIUS.

The Council of Ephesus, of more than 200 bishops, presided over by St. Cyril of Alexandria representing Pope Celestine I, defined the true personal unity of Christ, declared Mary the Mother of God (theotokos) against Nestorius, Bishop of Constantinople, and renewed the condemnation of Pelagius.

SITE: Constantinople (near Bosporus, a strait in today’s Turkey).
YEAR: A.D. 381
POPE: St. Damasus I, 367 - 384
EMPEROR: Theodosius I, the Great, 379 - 395
ACTION: It appears that Pope St. Damasus I was not contacted in regard to this council attended by about 186 bishops. Called by the emperor, it was not attended by the pope or his legates or any bishops from the West. Nevertheless, it is listed as a General Council of the 4th century by papal decrees of the 6th century, by which time its doctrinal definitions were accepted throughout the Church (Murphy, pg. 41). This council condemned the heresy of Macedonius by clearly defining the divinity of the Holy Ghost: He is not created like the angels no matter how high an order is attributed to such a “creature.” The council also reaffirmed the faith of Nicaea.
NOTE: St. Gregory Nazianzen, Doctor of the Church (d. 389), was the bishop presiding. St. Cyril of Jerusalem, Doctor of the Church (d. 386), was also in attendance.
HERESIARCH: MACEDONIUS.

The First General Council of Constantinople, under Pope Damasus and the Emperor Theodosius I, was attended by 150 bishops. It was directed against the followers of Macedonius, who impugned the Divinity of the Holy Ghost. To the above-mentioned Nicene Creed it added the clauses referring to the Holy Ghost (qui simul adoratur) and all that follows to the end.

SITE: Nicaea (in N.W. Asia Minor)
YEAR: A.D. 325
POPE: St. Sylvester I, 314 - 335
EMPEROR: Constantine I, The Great, Western Roman Emperor 306-337; Sole Emperor 324 - 337
ACTION: Called by the emperor and ratified by the Pope, this council condemned the heresy of Arius (priest of Alexandria, d. 336) by defining the CONSUBSTANTIALITY of God the Son with God the Father. The Son is of the “same substance,” homo-ousion, as the Father (St. Athanasius); not merely a “like substance,” homoi-ousion (as with the semi-Arians); nor is He (as Arius taught) some sort of super-creature.
NOTE: St. Athanasius, Doctor of the Church (d. 373), Bishop of Alexandria, was present as deacon and peritus at Nicaea; exiled five times and excommunicated by the Arians. St. Ephrem, Doctor of the Church (d. 373), deacon, was also present at Nicaea as peritus.
HERESIARCH: ARIUS.

The Council of Nicaea lasted two months and twelve days. Three hundred and eighteen bishops were present. Hosius, Bishop of Cordova, assisted as legate of Pope Sylvester. The Emperor Constantine was also present. To this council we owe The Creed (Symbolum) of Nicaea, defining against Arius the true Divinity of the Son of God (homoousios), and the fixing of the date for keeping Easter (against the Quartodecimans).